Introduction

Black plastics are commonly used in food packaging, consumer products, and textiles which are increasingly recognized as a source of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) (1). These plastics derive their color from carbon black additives and frequently contain hazardous compounds like bisphenols, phthalates, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (2). Black plastics are used in a variety of consumer products due to their aesthetic appeal and cost-effectiveness. However, recent research has raised concerns about the inclusion of harmful compounds in these plastics, particularly those made from recovered electronic waste (e-waste) (3). These compounds have been identified as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), which can interfere with hormonal systems and cause serious health risks (4).

According to recent global research, exposure to compounds commonly found in black plastic, particularly the endocrine disruptor di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), was associated with approximately 356,000 deaths from heart disease worldwide in 2018 (5-8). This figure accounts for around 13% of all global cardiovascular deaths among adults aged 55 to 64 in that year (7,9). Most of these deaths occurred in regions with higher DEHP exposure, notably the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, which combined accounted for around three-quarters of the total death toll (6,8-10). The United States alone risks a projected $250 billion (1.22% of GDP) in annual healthcare costs due to EDC exposure in plastics, notably black plastics (11). Other estimates, such as those by the Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human health, indicate even higher global expenditures of up to $920 billion in 2015 for the US population’s exposure to EDCs and neurotoxic plastic additives (11). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), phthalates, and PFAS are the most significant cost drivers (11).

EDCs in India have been connected to increased rates of diabetes, childhood obesity, and cancer with the number of cancer deaths and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) doubling from 2009 and 2016. The total cost of pollution and natural disasters in India has risen to $80 billion per year (approximately 6% of GDP), with endocrine disrupting chemicals contributing to this burden (12). Fragmentary data indicate that EDC pressure in India is comparable to or even higher than in developed countries, but systematic national biomonitoring is lacking (12). Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and poor chemical management in India have increased environmental contamination and public health threats (12). In India, black plastic food containers often made from recycled e-waste are frequently utilized for food packaging due to their low cost and availability (13). These containers have been shown to leach harmful chemicals directly into food, especially when exposed to heat or fatty/acidic foods, including endocrine-disrupting compounds such as heavy metals, flame retardants, PAHs, and phthalates (14). Earlier studies have warned that long-term exposure can increase risks of cancer, reproductive and developmental abnormalities, as well as other chronic diseases.

Black plastics contain a variety of compounds that operate as endocrine disruptors, including bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, flame retardants and PAHs, many of which are added during manufacturing or introduced through recycling processes, particularly e-waste. E-waste recovered materials may contain heavy metals like lead and cadmium, which can disrupt endocrine function and provide additional health hazards (15,16). Other additives such as plasticizers and stabilizers, may also disturb the endocrine system (15,16). The present study summarizes data of black plastics as an endocrine-disrupting effects, mechanisms, health implications for public health and mitigation strategies.

Methodology

The present study conducted a literature analysis and evaluation of black plastic’s impacts as an EDCs on public health, as well as mitigating challenges (17). The literature review was conducted using databases such as Elsevier, Heliyon, Taylor & Francis, Endocrine.org, Scientificamerican.com, CHEM Trust, Niehs.nih.gov, McGill.ca and other online reports and research articles. The literature study was undertaken between January and June 2025, using search phrases such as black plastic, EDCs, microplastics, morbidity/ mortality and public health implications.

Chemical Composition Of Black Plastics

Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs): These are typically found in black plastics, particularly those derived from recovered e-waste. These compounds can affect thyroid function, impair brain development, and lead to reproductive and developmental issues (15,16,18,19).

Phthalates: These are used as plasticizers to make plastics flexible, particularly in PVC (polyvinyl chloride). These are widely documented to disrupt reproductive hormone development, induce early puberty, and impair language development in children (15,20-22).

Bisphenol A (BPA): Used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. It mimics estrogen, affecting sexual and reproductive development, and is linked to fertility problems and cancer (20,22).

Heavy metals (Lead, Cadmium): These are typically found in black plastics from recycled materials. Both are neurotoxic and act as endocrine disruptors, disrupting hormone systems and causing developmental and reproductive issues (15).

Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): These can be found as pollutants, particularly in recycled e-waste. These impair hormone signaling, especially thyroid and reproductive hormones, and have been related to cancer and immunological dysfunction (15,20).

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): These are rarely found in black plastics, particularly those with greaseproof linings or coatings that influence hormone, reproductive and thyroid hormones (16,20,23).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs are found in carbon black pigment, and some of them have hormone disruptive effects.

Other Flame Retardants and Plastic Additive: These could include polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and other hormone-disrupting compounds (15,18,19).

Mechanisms and Effects of BC Chemicals

Carbon Black Nanoparticles (CB NPs): These substances are increasingly recognized as endocrine disruptors, with multiple adverse effects on human reproductive and endocrine health.

Reproductive System Disruption: CB NPs have been shown in animal experiments to cause testicular tissue damage, such as vacuolization and degeneration of seminiferous tubules, germ cell loss, and decreased spermatogonia costs. These modifications disrupt the milieu required for optimal reproductive function and suggest developmental vulnerability, particularly after prenatal exposure (24).

Hormonal Imbalance in Females: CB NP treatment in female mice selectively elevates follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels and pituitary gene expression while without influencing luteinizing hormone (LH). This might cause a gonadotropin imbalance, which may impair ovarian function and fertility. Pituitary cells internalize CB NP, which activates the cAMP/PKA signaling case cad (25).

Aromatase Inhibition and Reduced Estrogen: CB NPs diminish aromatase (CYP19A1) expression and activity in huma granulosa cells, leading to less generation of 17- β-estradiol (E2). This impact is dose-dependent and occurs even in the presence of FSH, indicating that CB NPs can directly impair estrogen synthesis, potentially affecting female reproductive health (26).

Oxidative Stress: CB NPs may cause oxidative stress, resulting in cellular damage inreproductive organs and altering endocrine function (24).

Broader Endocrine Disruption: CB NPs can also inhibit other nuclear receptors involved in endocrine control, such as thyroid and androgen receptors, which could lead to a variety of endocrine diseases (27,28).

Carrier for Other Toxicants: Black carbon can operate as a transporter for other combustion-derived hazardous substances, such as heavy metals and volatile organic compounds, thereby increasing endocrine disruption (29).

Plasticizers: Plasticizers, particularly phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), are commonly used compounds added to plastics to improve flexibility and durability. These compounds are well-documented EDCs that pose considerable risks to human health.

Reproductive Disorders: Phthalates and BPA interfere with reproductive hormone production and function, resulting in decreased fertility, altered sperm quality, disturbed menstrual cycles, and an increased risk of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) (25-27).

Developmental Abnormalities: Prenatal and early-life exposure can result in neurological problems, birth deformities, and impaired child growth (24,25,27).

Cancer: Exposure to EDCs in plasticizers has been associated to hormone-related cancers such as breast, prostate, and testicular cancer (17,24,29).

Metabolic Diseases: Plasticizer exposure has been linked to an increased incidence of obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome due to disturbance of thyroid and other metabolic hormones (17,24,26).

Neurological Effects: EDCs can affect brain function, particularly in developing fetuses and toddlers (17,25,29).

Other Endocrine Effects: Chronic exposure can disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid/adrenal/gonadal axis, impacting several endocrine glands and resulting in a variety of hormonal abnormalities (28).

Adsorbed Pollutants: Adsorbed pollutants in BC, such as heavy metals (lead, cadmium) and persistent organic pollutants (dioxins), have a substantial influence of public health due to their endocrine disrupting properties. Black plastics, particularly those derived from recycled e-waste, can accumulate and carry dangerous compounds that are not chemically bound to the plastic and can leach into food, water and the body when exposed (26,27).

Lead and Cadmium: Both are harmful heavy metals that interfere with hormone receptors, enzyme activity, and signaling pathways. Chronic exposure is associated with developmental and reproductive damage, neurological impairment, kidney and liver dysfunction, metabolic problems, and an elevated risk of cancer (26,27).

Dioxins: These are persistent organic compounds that mimic or block hormone activity, primarily affecting thyroid and reproductive hormones. Dioxins have been linked to cancers, immunological dysfunction, diabetes, altered reproductive development, and harmful effects on future generations due to germ cell abnormalities (24,26,27).

Synergistic Effects: When black plastics contain numerous compounds, the cumulative endocrine-disrupting effects may be greater than individual exposures. Co-exposure to microplastics and compounds such as BPA or heavy metals can increase toxicity, change gene expression associated to hormone synthesis, and causes cell death in reproductive tissues (26,28).

Mechanisms of Endocrine Disruption by BC Interfere with Hormonal Systems

Receptor Antagonism and Agonism

Mimicry and Agonism: Many compounds found in black plastics, including bisphenol A (BPA) and certain phthalates, are structurally like natural hormones such as estrogen. This permits them to bind to activate hormone receptors (estrogen receptors Erα and Erβ), imitating the action of the body’s own hormones (22,30,31).

Antagonism: Other compounds, such as phthalates and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), can operate as antagonists by binding to hormone receptors (androgen or thyroid receptors) but not activating them, blocking the natural hormone from exerting its effect. Reduced hormone signaling can result in delayed reproductive development, thyroid dysfunction, and metabolic problems (30,31).

Multi-Receptor Interference: Chemicals in black plastics can bind to several hormone receptors, including estrogen, androgen, thyroid, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) (30,31).

Disruption Beyond Receptors: In addition to direct receptor interactions, black plastic compounds can affect hormone transport, distribution, and bioavailability, affecting endocrine function (32).

Oxidative Stress: Black plastics can interfere with hormonal systems by inducing oxidative stress, which is a primary mechanism behind their endocrine disruptive effects.

Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): When BC particles (micro and nanoplastics) are absorbed by cells, they can damage cell membranes and cause an increase in ROS production. This oxidative stress harms biological components such as lipids, protein and DNA (33).

Lipid Peroxidation: Excess ROS causes the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes, resulting in lipid peroxidation (LPO). This process compromises the integrity and function of cell membranes, which are essential for hormone-producing cells and endocrine glands (33).

Inflammatory Responses: Oxidative damage causes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which contribute to cellular dysfunction and tissue damage, particularly in endocrine organs (33).

Cellular signaling interference: Black plastics impair with hormonal systems by cellular signaling interference, which is mostly caused by the presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) as additives or impurities.

Receptor Interference: Chemicals in BC, such as bisphenols, phthalates, and brominated flame retardants, can mimic or block natural hormones by binding to hormone receptors (agonist or antagonist). This disrupts normal receptor-mediated signaling, resulting in the incorrect activation or inhibition of hormonal pathways (34,35,36).

Alteration of Signal Transduction: EDCs in BC can affect intracellular signaling cascades that begin with hormone-receptor interactions. They may impact the activity of membrane and intracellular hormone receptors, influencing downstream pathways that control gene expression, cell development and differentiation (32,36).

Disruption of Hormone Synthesis and Secretion: Certain BC-derived compounds disrupt hormone production and secretion by altering enzyme and protein function. This can cause aberrant circulating hormone levels, which can disrupt the endocrine system’s feedback mechanisms (32,35,37).

Impaired Hormone Transport and Bioavailability: EDCs can influence how hormones are carried across cell membranes and disseminated in the bloodstream, occasionally displacing hormones from their binding proteins. This alters the quantity of hormone available to target tissues, causing further disruption in normal signaling (32).

Epigenetic and Transgenerational Effects: BC-derived EDCs can potentially modify gene expression via epigenetic modifications, influencing cellular signaling in ways that may remain across generations (1,37).

Epigenetic Modulation: Black plastics disrupt hormone systems by epigenetic modulations, a process by which chemicals change gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence. This mechanism is increasingly recognized as an important avenue for the long-term and even transgenerational impacts of EDCs present in BC, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates.

DNA Methylation: Exposure to BC-derived EDCs can alter DNA methylation patterns, notably in genes implicated in hormone signaling and reproductive function. These methylation alterations (epimutations) can either silence or activate genes abnormally, resulting in altered hormone synthesis and signaling (38-40).

Histone Modification: EDCs can also influence how DNA is packed in the cell by modifying histone proteins, which influences which genes are accessible for transcription and hence impacts hormone-related biological processes (41).

Non-coding RNAs: Certain plastic-derived compounds may alter the expression of micro RNAs and other non-coding RNAs, which influence gene expression post-transcriptionally and have important roles in endocrine system regulation (41).

Major Health Implications

Cancer: BC typically contains flame retardants and other toxins. High quantities of these compounds have been identified in household objects such as kitchen utensils, food containers, and toys, raising the risk of various malignancies (18,19,42).

Reproductive and Developmental Harm: Even at low concentrations, chemicals leaching from BC can have substantial reproductive and developmental consequences. This includes decreased fertility, abnormal sexual development, premature birth, birth abnormalities, and long-term consequences on child growth and neurological development (15,18,19,42).

Neurological Effects: EDC exposure in BC has been related to neurotoxicity, which includes developmental delays, cognitive impairment, and behavioral issues, particularly in children and fetuses (15,18,19).

Thyroid and Metabolic Disorders: EDCs can impair thyroid function and metabolic balance, raising the risk of obesity, diabetes, and related disorders (15,19).

Immune Dysfunction: Certain flame retardants and pesticides present in BC have been linked to decreased immune function and an increased risk of infections and immunological-mediated illnesses (42).

Kidney and Organ Toxicity: Toxic compounds in BC can poison organs like the brain and kidneys, causing long-term organ damage (18,19).

Environmental And Transgenerational Effects

BC, as a source of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), has both environmental and transgenerational consequences that raise serious public health and ecological concerns.

Environmental Impacts

Widespread Pollution: BC are common in the environment, especially they are very difficult to recycle and frequently end up in landfills, incinerators, or as litter (19). As they decay, microplastics and nanoplastics are released, which remain in soil, water and air (35,37).

Carrier of Toxic Chemicals: BC contain or absorb EDCs include bisphenols (BPA), phthalates, flame retardants, heavy metals, dioxins, and PFAS. These compounds are not covalently linked to the plastic matrix, making them prone to leaching into the environment (23,34,35).

Bioaccumulation and Food Web Transfer: Domestic animals and marine species swallow micro- and nanoplastics, as well as their adsorbed EDCs. These particles can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in food webs, exposing higher trophic levels, including humans, to larger quantities of EDCs (35,37).

Ecosystem Disruption: EDCs from BC impair hormonal systems in domestic animals, marine creatures, influencing reproduction, growth, and behavior, perhaps leading to population losses and changed ecosystem dynamics (35,37).

Transgenerational Impacts

Epigenetic Changes: Exposure to BC EDCs can cause epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation and histone alterations) in germ cells (sperm and eggs). These alterations can be handed down to future generations, even without additional direct exposure (34).

Developmental and Reproductive Effects: Animal and human research show that EDCs from plastics can lead to reproductive damage, developmental defects, and altered hormone control in offspring and future generations (34,35).

Chronic Disease Risk: Transgenerational exposure to EDCs is associated with an increased risk of cancer, metabolic problems, diabetes, and neurodevelopmental abnormalities in descendants (34).

Persistence of Effects: EDCs are persistent in the environment and can produce long-term epigenetic modifications, their effects may linger for several generations, exacerbating the public health burden (34).

Most Vulnerable Groups:

Infants and Children: Children are especially vulnerable since their bodies and endocrine systems are still developing. Exposure to EDCs during critical growth periods can cause neurodevelopmental abnormalities, reduced cognitive function, learning difficulties, attention disorders, and reproductive toxicity when chewing on BC toys. Children’s regular contact with plastics in toys, food packaging and household items increases their risk (34,43,44).

Pregnant Women and Features: EDCs derived from black plastics can pass the placental barrier, exposing fetuses to toxic compounds during crucial phases of development. This can cause neurodevelopmental defects, reproductive disorders, and other developmental issues in newborns. Pregnant women’s exposure can also interfere with hormone control, compromising both maternal and fetal health (34,35).

Reproductive-Aged Individuals: EDCs in BC, such as phthalates and bisphenols, have been associated to infertility, hormone-based cancers, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), and poor steroidogenesis, rendering those of reproductive age particularly vulnerable (34,35).

Communities Near Plastic Production of Waste Sites: Workers and residents near plastic manufacturing plants, recycling centers, or waste incineration facilities are at higher risk due to direct exposure to airborne or waterborne EDCs throughout the plastic lifecycle (34).

Consumers with High Plastic Use: Individuals who consume more packaged foods, use of plastic containers, or reliance on plastic products for daily living are at increased risk of chronic exposure to EDCs (1).

Strategies For Mitigating Challenges

Global Policy Interventions: There is a rising call for comprehensive strategies to reduce EDC exposure. The European Union and the United Nations have taken steps toward establishing frameworks to prevent plastic pollution and limit EDC exposures (34).

Bans and Restrictions: Some governments are phasing out single-use plastics and limiting the use of specific toxic compounds like phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) (34).

International Agreements: Proposals to classify hazardous plastic additives (UV-238) under global treaties like the Stockholm Convention are growing, with the goal of controlling and eventually eliminating the most toxic compounds (15).

Reducing Exposure: Individuals can reduce their risk by minimizing use of plastics, particularly for food storage and heating, and avoiding products known to contain EDCs (45).

Diet and Lifestyle: According toresearch, diets high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, combined with a reduction in ultra-processed foods, can help mitigate some of the impacts of EDCs. Probiotics and frequent physical activity may also help the body adapt to these compounds (45).

Sweating and Detoxification: Emerging research suggests that induced sweating (by exercise or sauna use) may help remove some EDCs from the body more effectively than other routes (45).

Discussion

Black plastic in food containers and toys provides major health hazards as an endocrine disruptor due to toxic additives/ compounds used in their manufacture, especially when made from recovered e-waste (18,42). These compounds disrupt hormonal systems, primarily affecting thyroid function, reproductive health and development. Recycled black plastic is frequently derived from e-waste containing brominated flame retardants (PBDEs, TBBPA). When heated or chewed, these chemicals leach into food or saliva and cause endocrine disruption (18,19,42,46). Brominated dioxins, which are produced during plastic recycling, are strong endocrine disruptors linked to thyroid dysfunction, low IQ in children, and developmental delays (46). BPA and phthalates, which are typically found in BC, act as hormone mimics and affect reproductive systems (47,48).

TBBPA and brominated dioxins reduce thyroid hormone transit, which affects metabolism and growth (47,48). Endocrine disruptors in black plastic have been linked to infertility, premature birth, and birth abnormalities (48). When children swallow contaminated toys, they absorb chemicals that cause neurological damage and developmental issues (46,47). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and flame retardants such as decaBDE are classified as potential human carcinogens (19,42). Microwaving food in black plastic containers promotes chemical leaching into food (19,42). Toxins are transferred straight into the body while chewing toys or using black utensils (18,46). Even low-dose exposure can accumulate over time, increasing health hazards (19,48). CB NPs damage endocrine function by a variety of mechanisms, including direct hormonal imbalance, poor steroidogenesis, oxidative stress, and serving as carriers for other toxicants. These consequences raise serious concerns for human reproductive health and broader endocrine system disorders (24-26,29). The projected 30-36% rise in global plastic manufacturing over the next six years will most likely exacerbate EDC exposures and associated health risks, if current practices continue (15). Effective mitigation will require coordinated global action, robust regulatory frameworks, advance research, and widespread public engagement to minimize the use of hazardous chemicals in plastics and manage their lifestyle impacts responsibly.

Mitigating the hazards posed by BC, particularly their role as endocrine disruptors, involves interventions at the individual, community, industry and government levels. Replacing BC with glass, stainless steel or ceramics for reheating would eliminate BC, since heat accelerates chemical leaching (15,49). Switching to wooden, bamboo or stainless-steel utensils and food storage containers would be safer alternatives (49). Carrying water in plastic bottles should be avoided, since they contain many microplastics (49). Limiting shellfish and large fish intake would lead to an increase in microplastics and associated pollutants, as many microplastics wind up in oceans and are then swallowed by fish and marine creatures (49). Local governments should implement stricter policies and regulations to reduce the use of carbon black additives and phthalates in food containing materials, therefore reducing public and environmental exposure (18,34). Public awareness programs are needed particularly among susceptible populations such as youngsters and pregnant women to minimize the risk of BC exposures (49).

Conclusion

Black plastics include a complex mixture of compounds, including brominated flame retardants, phthalates, BPA, heavy metals, dioxins, PCBs, PFAS, and PAHs, which have been related to endocrine disruption and variety of public health concerns. These compounds can leach from plastics into food, drinks, and the environment, making black plastics particularly problematic for endocrine-related health impacts. Their capacity to disrupt hormone signaling, harm reproductive health, and have serious health consequences highlights the urgent need for reduced dependence on these materials and increases regulatory control. By adopting proactive efforts, it is possible to reduce the health risks connected with these materials and establish a safer environment for everyone. Future research should prioritize human-relevant exposure evaluations and mechanistic investigations into non-reproductive endocrine axis.

Conflicts of Interest

There are no conflicts of Interest to declare.

Acknowledgment

The authors are extremely grateful to all authors of case studies included in this study. The authors gratefully credit Elsevier, Heliyon, Taylor & Francis, Endocrine.org, Scientificamerican.com, CHEM Trust, Niehs.nih.gov, McGill.ca, DBT-BUILDER Project, Govt. of India in the form of BT/INF/22/SP43045/2021, dt: 22.11.2021 and JSS AHER, Mysuru.

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